The country’s sewerage network is an essential part of Egypt’s infrastructure’s evolution. Egypt has made significant strides in developing and expanding its sewage system over the years to satisfy the needs of the country’s rising urban population and safeguard public health and the environment.

These early networks were primitive and only covered small regions (Farahat & Kishk, 2010). Under British colonial authority, Egypt witnessed urbanization and modernization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The British government started working on fixing the nation’s sewage and water treatment systems, especially in larger cities like Cairo and Alexandria. Some sewage systems were piped in, and sanitary infrastructure was upgraded.

When Egypt finally broke free of British rule in 1952, it began nationalizing and expanding its infrastructure, including the sewerage system (ROBERTS & FLAXMAN, 1985). To provide sewage services to a larger population, the Egyptian government has taken over the administration of several utility operations. The Egyptian government has long advocated for decentralizing sewage management to better meet the demands of individual provinces. This method launched various community-based initiatives to build sewage infrastructure in outlying communities and agricultural regions (A. & A., 2009).

Egypt spent money on wastewater treatment facilities to address the problem of dumping sewage without first treating it. These facilities prevent pollution and safeguard water supplies by processing sewage before tossing it into the environment. Despite its great strides, Egypt’s sewage network struggles, especially in highly populated regions. Constant improvements and extension of current infrastructure are required due to rapid urbanization and population development. Concern for long-term upkeep and responsible administration also persists.

1.     Methods of Construction of sewage network in Egypt in the old days

Compared to today’s standards, the technologies used to build sewage networks in ancient Egypt were very straightforward. As populations rose, so did the demand for improved sanitation and better waste management, leading to the gradual development of these techniques. Although these practices seem primitive compared to modern standards, they were essential for maintaining even the most fundamental levels of sanitation and hygiene in ancient Egyptian society. Some of the techniques are described in further depth below.

·         Open Drains and Canals:

Most ancient Egyptians relied on open sewers and canals to dispose of their waste. The ancient Egyptians channeled effluent away from residential areas by digging small ditches and canals. These ditches were built so that sewage be directed downwards into bodies of water like the Nile or local irrigation canals. In urban settings, these drains helped keep water from pooling and becoming a breeding ground for mosquitoes that spread illness (Burian & Edwards, 2002).

·         Cesspits and Pits:

Ancient Egyptians living in denser urban settings collected and contained human excrement in cesspits or pits. Underground chambers or big holes were excavated to create cesspits. These pits were used to dispose of human waste and other domestic garbage, which would eventually gather there (Lofrano & Brown, 2010). The trash would be removed from the pits regularly and spread on farms as fertilizer. This approach improved waste management inside a settlement, but it did little to address the problem of wastewater treatment or disposal.

·         Fields of Absorption:

Several ancient Egyptian cities used Absorption fields or soakaways to treat and dispose of wastewater. These open spaces had porous soil and would let wastewater slowly seep underground. The water would be filtered and purified by the earth and natural processes, mitigating some of the damage it does. To avoid polluting the local water supply, absorption fields were often placed in remote areas distant from the central town (Abdel-Dayem et al., 2007).

·         Drainage Gardens:

Wastewater gardens or wetlands were created by the ancient Egyptians in certain regions to purify water. These artificial gardens or natural marshy areas would receive domestic wastewater runoff. Wetlands’ aquatic plants act as natural filters, taking in and breaking down harmful substances in the water. The wastewater’s adverse environmental effects might be mitigated by treating it and then discharging or using the water for agriculture (Valipour et al., 2020).

·         Clay pipes

The ancient Egyptians installed systems of clay pipes for waste removal in their most advanced urban areas, notably in the homes of the wealthy and public structures. Compared to today’s sophisticated sewage networks, these piping systems were primitive and modest. The clay pipes would collect the wastewater, allowing a more regulated and streamlined outflow away from the populous regions (Brown, 2005).

2.     Project Management techniques and Risk Management adopted in the Construction of Thames Tideway Tunnel UK.

The following specific project management methods were used in the UK to build the Thames Tideway Tunnel:

·         Building Information Modelling (BIM)

Building information modeling (BIM) is an advanced digital technology that allows the many parties engaged in a construction project to collaborate, visualize, and coordinate. It enables collaboration on a shared 3D model of the project amongst the team’s architects, engineers, contractors, and other members (Loftus & March 2017). BIM would have been essential in producing a virtual depiction of the complex systems, components, and design of the Thames Tideway Tunnel (Mittal et al., 2023). Before building started, this digital model would have given stakeholders a single forum to discuss and resolve design problems. As a result of improved planning and resource management by BIM, the project team better detect potential issues and make wise choices throughout the project.

Risk Managed at Building Information Modelling (BIM)

As a tool for risk management, BIM aided in the early detection of possible confrontations, constructability challenges, and coordination problems, hence minimizing the possibility of conflicts and mistakes occurring on-site. It helps people see the big picture of the project so they can make more informed decisions and lessen the risks associated with the building process.

·         Lean Construction Techniques:

Lean construction is a management style that focuses on increasing value while reducing waste in the building process (Mittal et al., 2023). The project team would have used lean concepts for the Thames Tideway Tunnel to maximize production and efficiency (Grafe & Hilbrandt, 2019). For instance, they used just-in-time delivery of building supplies to lessen the requirement for on-site storage and eliminate possible delays. To find and remove inefficiencies and create a more efficient and cost-effective building process, lean construction also strongly emphasizes continual improvement and cooperation among all project participants.

Risk Managed at Lean Construction Techniques:

Reduce waste, increase value, and boost efficiency using lean construction techniques for risk management. Using lean methods, the team can pinpoint the causes of delays, inefficiencies, and cost overruns. Poor construction is based on continuous improvement and cooperation principles, which promote the early identification of problems and the proactive control of risks (Loftus & March 2017).

·         Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)

IPD stands for integrated project delivery, a cooperative strategy that encourages collaboration and shared accountability among all project stakeholders. This would have required early input and engagement from the owner, designers, contractors, and suppliers in the case of the Thames Tideway Tunnel (Grafe & Hilbrandt, 2019). IPD aims to establish a team-oriented culture where all partners collaborate from the project’s genesis to the conclusion, sharing risks and benefits and making collaborative choices. The project team benefited from the experience of essential stakeholders by incorporating them early on, which will enhance design, construction, and cost management.

Risk Managed at Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)

IPD, or integrated project delivery, is a collaborative approach to delivering projects in which all parties involved (owners, designers, contractors, etc.) work together from the outset to divide and conquer risks and benefits. IPD aided in the identification and mitigation of chances throughout the project lifecycle by promoting early engagement and open communication. Better risk management techniques were developed with the help of everyone’s knowledge and experience.

·         Earned Value Management (EVM):

Earned Value Management (EVM) is a strategy for measuring the success of projects that includes the three crucial factors of scope, schedule, and cost. The project team determines if the project is on track or whether any deviations call for corrective action by comparing the projected progress and expenses with the actual performance. EVM would have been used to compare the progress of tunnel construction for the Thames Tideway Tunnel against the anticipated timeline and budget. To keep the project on track, it gives project managers insightful information on how well costs and schedules are doing.

Risk Managed at Earned Value Management (EVM):

EVM is a method for measuring project success by combining the three traditional metrics of scope, time, and money (Newman, 2021). It’s a valuable tool for project managers since it lets them check how things are going and see if anything is off track. To mitigate new threats, including delays in the schedule or cost overruns, it is essential to spot deviations as soon as possible.

3.     Comparison of Sewage Cases Globally and Egypt based.

4.     Frameworks, guidelines, and models explicitly related to construction sewage projects.

Frameworks:

• Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): IWRM aims to maximize economic and social welfare while conserving the Sustainability of ecosystems via the integrated development and management of water, land, and associated resources. When applied to sewage projects, IWRM improves efficiency in water resource use, wastewater treatment and reuse, and environmental impact reduction.
• Goals for Sustaining Development (SDGs): The SDGs offer a worldwide framework for tackling sewage-related concerns, particularly Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. Access to safe and inexpensive sanitary facilities, adequate wastewater treatment, and enhanced water quality are all encouraged by this framework.
• Triple Bottom Line (TBL) paradigm. The social, environmental, and economic spheres are all taken into account in the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) paradigm. The TBL methodology be used in sewage projects to guarantee long-term beneficial effects on public health, environmental quality, and Financial Sustainability.

Guidelines:

• Health and Safety Measures: Measures for Health and Safety in Sewage Building It is essential that all workers and the general public be kept safe and healthy throughout the sewage building process.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Before beginning construction, conducting a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to evaluate any possible negative impacts on the surrounding ecosystem is essential. The project plan include mitigation strategies to lessen the project’s effect on ecosystems, biodiversity, and water quality.
• Community Engagement and Communication. Maintain open lines of communication with the community and stakeholders at all project stages. Building confidence and support for the project requires open communication about its goals, possible interruptions, and rewards.
• Wastewater Treatment Standards: The effective removal of pollutants and pathogens before discharge or reuse depends on adhering to national and international standards for wastewater treatment.
• Sustainable Materials and Technologies. Use environmentally friendly building supplies and cutting-edge technology to reduce the project’s energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and resource depletion.

Models:

• Activated Sludge Process Model (ASM): The Activated Sludge Model (ASM) is a popular tool for modeling the processes involved in treating wastewater using sludge. Predicting the efficacy of biological treatment processes aids in optimizing sewage treatment system design and operation.
• Stormwater Management Models Models for managing stormwater are used to plan sewage systems that can handle high volumes of water during heavy rains by simulating the runoff and drainage systems. SWMM (Storm Water Management Model) and MIKE URBAN are examples.

• Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Life cycle assessment (LCA) be used to do just that while not explicitly designed for assessing the environmental effects of sewage projects. It considers every step of the process, from sourcing the raw materials to operating the facility to disposing of it at the end of its useful life.

5.     References

• , F. and A., K. (2009) ‘Cognitive functions changes among Egyptian sewage network workers’, Egyptian Journal of Occupational Medicine, 33(2), pp. 253–270. doi:10.21608/ejom.2009.682.
• Abdel-Dayem, S., Abdel-Gawad, S. and Fahmy, H. (2007) ‘Drainage in Egypt: A story of determination, continuity, and success,’ Irrigation and Drainage, 56(S1). doi:10.1002/ird.335.
• Brown, J.A. (2005) ‘The early history of wastewater treatment and disinfection,’ Impacts of Global Climate Change [Preprint]. doi:10.1061/40792(173)288.
• Burian, S.J. and Edwards, F.G. (2002) ‘Historical Perspectives of Urban Drainage,’ Global Solutions for Urban Drainage [Preprint]. doi:10.1061/40644(2002)284.
• Farahat, S.A. and Kishk, N.A. (2010) ‘Cognitive functions change among Egyptian sewage network workers’, Toxicology and Industrial Health, 26(4), pp. 229–238. doi:10.1177/0748233710364966.
• Grafe, F.-J. and Hilbrandt, H. (2019) ‘The temporalities of Financialization,’ City, 23(4–5), pp. 606–618. doi:10.1080/13604813.2019.1689730.
• Lofrano, G. and Brown, J. (2010) ‘Wastewater management through the ages: A history of mankind,’ Science of The Total Environment, 408(22), pp. 5254–5264. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.07.062.
• Loftus, A. and March, H. (2017) ‘Integrating what and for whom? Financialization and the Thames Tideway Tunnel’, Urban Studies, 56(11), pp. 2280–2296. doi:10.1177/0042098017736713.
• Mittal, A., Agrawal, P. and Agrawal, S. (2023) ‘UK—Thames Tideway Tunnel,’ Management for Professionals, pp. 271–278. doi:10.1007/978-981-19-2019-6_14.
• Newman, T. (2021) ‘Logging the Lambeth Group Upper Shelly Beds for the Thames Tideway Tunnel in London, UK: More than just “dark grey clay with shells,”‘ Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 132(2), pp. 227–239. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2020.12.002.
• ROBERTS, D. and FLAXMAN, E. (1985) ‘Greater Cairo wastewater project: History, development and management philosophy.’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 78(4), pp. 711–728. doi:10.1680/iicep.1985.1029.
• Valipour, M. et al. (2020) ‘The evolution of agricultural drainage from the earliest to the present,’ Sustainability, 12(1), p. 416. doi:10.3390/su12010416.